Factors to Be Considered by Researchers When Defining Data Collection Essay Example

Factors to Be Considered by Researchers When Defining Data Collection Essay Data are materials or information gathered during the process of making inquiry about problems. â€Å"Data of whatever form do not just appear or lie around waiting to be causally picked up by some passing researcher but have to be given form and shape in other to quantify as data; made relevant in a word to a research problem† (Ackryod and Hughes, 1992). In other words, data are systematically collected groups of information that represent either qualitative or quantitative results. From the point of view of social research, the world only exist as data and data can exist only through the interpretations placed on materials gathered from the world†(Williams and May,1996). This essay question will be looking at factors that should be considered to define data of a study. Looking at two empirical researches based on injecting drug users Study 1 looked at a community based cross-sectional survey among out of treatment male opiate injecting drug users (IDU) between ages 15 to 45.Data on nonfatal overdose were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire from 299 IDU from two district of Bac Ninh in North Vietnam in 2003. Study 2 examines the range of HCV services that treatment programs provide to their HCV positive clients using data collected from 233 drug free and methadone maintenance treatment programs (MMTPS) throughout the united state. Although findings indicated that MMTPS offer more HCV services to more of their HCV positive clients than drug free programs, but drug free programs provided more individualized services.Researchers are people that make inquiry into things that are obscure to human and tend to find possible solutions to this problem. They must put some factors into consideration to determine the type of data to be collected such as: aims and objectives of the research, research design, sampling strategies, methods research strategy, data collection technique, reliability, validity and ethics of the research. â€Å"The resear ch process usually begins with the theoretical perception or formulation of the research topic† (Sarantakos, 2005).According to Gilbert (2001) theoretical perspective are not just important as elements of good research practice, but also enormous value in inspiring and stimulating us to ask new question. This is also supported by Ackroyd and Hughes (1992) saying theory is a veritable feast of notions, viewpoints, perspectives, abstractions and ideas which plays different roles in sociological enquiry. Theory gives explanation on something that one would find difficult to understand. â€Å"Theories ought to be firmly based on data if they are to be useful in understanding social world† (Gilbert, 2001).Theory could be generated deductively or inductively. Gilbert (2001) said that inductive theory has to do with moving from a known knowledge to unknown, quantitative research makes use of this while deductive theory begins with a theory and use it to explain an observation, qualitative research makes use of this. Study 2 hypothesized that because MMTPs serve a greater portion of IDUs than drug free programs, it is expected that it will offer more comprehensive services for their HCV positive clients. The two articles made use of an inductive theory because they both used quantitative methodAims and objectives of the research is also another factor that determines data collection. â€Å"The aims and methods of research is to put links between the empirical world and theoretical perception† (Ackryod and Hughes, 1992). For example, the aims and objectives of the study 1 were to evaluate the effectiveness of a peer network intervention in reducing HIV and STD transmission and to assess the prevalence and characteristics associated with non-fatal drug overdose among IDUs between 18-45 years in North Vietnam.Here, the researcher is interested in knowing the features and the total number of people using non-fatal drug overdose within a specific age gr oup injecting drugs into their body in Tu son and and Bac Ninh township, North Vietnam. Data collected here will only be within a particular age group from only the two districts. The aims and objectives of study 2 are to evaluate the effectiveness for addressing drug users’ HCV needs using expert in hepatitis and drug addiction and to know the types of services provided by HCV service delivery to the HCV positive injecting and non-injecting drug users in USA.Based on the objective, data collected must be from all HCV service delivery in all the states. Research design is the criteria used when evaluating social research. â€Å"The function of research design is to ensure that evidence obtained enabled us to answer the initial questions as unambiguously as possible† (De Vaus, 2005). It has been suggested that every research needs a design or structure before data collection or analysis begins. Good research design should make it possible for generalization and possible valid inferences from the data.Study 1 and study 2 used a cross-sectional design . According to Burton (2000) cross-sectional design uses data collected from at least two groups at one point in time and compare the extent to which they differ. For example, in study 1 survey among out of treatment male opiate IDU age 18-45 with population of 299, data on non-factual overdose were collected from two Bac Ninh district which are Bac Ninh township and Tu Son in North Vietnam in 2009. While in study 2 survey among drug treatment program was collected throughout the USA from 2001 to 2003.Bryman (2004) suggested that in order to examine association between two variables, it is necessary to have a systematic and standardized method for gauging variation. In study 1, in other for the interviewer to ensure a standardized definition of overdose, a description of common signs and symptoms of overdose due to opioid use was read out. Cross-sectional design does not ensure validity of data because data were only collected at a point which might not be a true representative of the study sample.A much preferred design that would have been preferable will be the use of longitudinal design because most especially for study 2, it will ensure reliability of the data collected by asking the organisation same question over again. The major disadvantage of this study is that it does not give access to generalization of the population creating a kind of bias since******** research is based on the views of organisations concerning the use of treatment programs. According to Babbie(2007) Longitudinal study permit the observation of the study sample over a period of time especially for an in-depth interview.Longitudinal can be more difficult for quantitative studies such as large survey in study 2, nevertheless, they are the best way to study changes over time â€Å"A sampling method is a technique of collecting information about some members of the population† (De Vaus, 2002). Th ey way participant are selected could affect data collection in a way that selecting wrong participant could lead to wrong gathering of information so it is important to define the target group from the population. â€Å"The two sampling approaches are probability and non-probability sampling†(Burton,2000).Study 1 used a non-probability sample example include snowball sampling while study 2 used probability approach example is random sampling. The difference between probability and non-probability sample is that: â€Å" Probability sample is one in which each person in the population has an equal, or at least a known chance of being selected while in a non-probability sample, some people have a greater but unknown chance than others of selection†(De Vaus, 1996 pg:60). â€Å"Snow ball sampling refers to the process of accumulation as each located subject suggests other subject† (Babbie, 2007).In this type of sample, researcher gathers data on the few members of t he target population that can be located. In study 1, the IDU were recruited by 20 trained current and former drug using peer outreach workers through a snow ball-sampling approach in Bac Ninh. â€Å"Statistical theory states that the most reliable way of obtaining a representative sample is to use random sampling whereby each case, whether that be an individual, household, or organisation has an equal probability of being selected†(Burton,2000 pg:309).Here, a researcher has equal chances of selecting members of the study population. In study 2, project staff made telephone calls to screen for eligibility a group of randomly selected drug treatment programs that were listed in the year 2000 inventory of substance abuse treatment database. Non-probability sampling is a useful method of sampling where the researcher is interested in respondent within the sample size as opposed to making wide generalization. Limited resources, inability to identify members of the population and the need to establish the existence of a problem all justify the use of non-probability sampling† (Burton, 2000 pg: 316) Babbie (2007, pg: 187) argued that non-probability sampling cannot guarantee that the sample observed is a true representative of the whole population and is supported by Henry (1990) that as a result of the subjective nature of the selection process, involved in non-probability sampling ,there is a risk that the result will not be valid due to bias in section process. Probability samples are often regarded as the preferable way of obtaining samples that is true representative of the population† (Burton, 2000 pg 309). The major strength of probability sample is that the selection allows the development of statistical theory to examine the attributes of sample estimators to reduce bias. Coomber (1997) argued that probability sampling becomes a problem if the information needed to construct a sampling frame is absent. If not done properly, probability sa mpling can generate different types of error.Bryman and Cramer (1993) suggested that response rates on sample survey are sometimes so low that there is no great difference between probability and non-probability sample. Research methods are ways of gathering materials in research. There are two ways of collecting and collating materials which are quantitative and qualitative method. Quantitative method is the use of statistical analyses, real figures to collect data from the environment without subjective interference of the researchers. â€Å"The aim of the research is to collect fact about society which can be statistically analysed† (Gilbert, 2001).Quantitative data makes observation more explicit and can make it easier to summarise aggregate and compare data. Both study used quantitative study but the disadvantage of this type of method is that it does not give rich meaning to a study due to the fact that it is making use of statistics unlike qualitative data which gives a richer and in-depth meaning to a social phenomenon . According to Strauss and Corbin (1990) qualitative methods broadly define means any kind of research that produces findings not arrived by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification.The aim of qualitative research is to offer a view of a situation and provide a written research reports that shows the research reports that shows the researchers ability to illustrate phenomena but its disadvantage is that it deals with just verbal description. Surveys are the most common and best method used for of data collection in social research, and it is useful in collecting original data for describing a population too large to be observed .According to Sarantakos (2005), surveys are methods of data collection in which information is gathered through oral or written questioning. For example, study 1used a semi-structured questionnaire survey which is a type of written questioning while study 2 used interviewing which i s a type of oral questioning. Survey research according to Babbie(2007) offers advantages in terms of economy, the amount of data that can be collected and the chance to sample a large population. In study 1, the survey was carried out in 2 district with the total population as 185825.The disadvantages of survey is that it is difficult to to gain a full sense of social processes in their natural processes. â€Å" In general, survey research is comparatively weak on validity and strong on reliability† (Babbie, 2007) Using a semi- structured questionnaire in study 1, the respondent must be put in mind. In study 1 for example bearing in mind the respondent,, the semi-structured questionnaire was translated into their native language which is Vietnamese for the respondent to be able to understand what it is all about. t could explore large number of people’s view. 399 participants in study 1 had face to face interviews and the questionnaires included questions on demograph ic characteristics, history of drug use, sexual behaviour to mention a few. The tendency of a questionnaire survey to ask rigid questions which force respondent answer into particular categories which they may not have thought of is one of the reasons why it is preferable to use interview as an alternative†(Valentine, 1997: 110) Study 2 used telephone interview.Interviewing is a type of research method that does not ask fixed answer questions. . â€Å"Quatitative interview may be used either as a primary strategy for data collection or in conjunction with observation, document analysis, or other techniques† (Bogdan and Biklen, 1982). The use of telephone interview in study 2 for initial screening process reduces cost of interviewing a large number of programs across the 50 states in United States. According to Sarantakos (2005), interview is employed when the interview are simple and brief, when quick and inexpensive result are sought.In this study, the interview was co nducted for 3 hours which might prove too strenuous, difficult and time consuming for the respondent. â€Å"Telephone interviews enable researcher to gather information rapidly and allow for some personal contact between the interviewer and respondent† (Kvale, 1996)*****.. I The advantage of this method is that it produces quick result, and allow more open communication since the respondent is not confronted with the interviewer. The disadvantages of this method is high refusal rate.In study 2, 614 programs were interviewed during screening, but just 233 programs participated in the study. ********Using sampling size in study 2 might not be a good way of recruiting program services from the whole of 53 countries in the state because it might not be a true representative of the programs********* The advantages of interview over questionnaire are that it answers the Why questions rather than just the how many, how often. For example, in study 2 the interviewers ask questions on the organisational characteristics of the program as well as demographic information about the clients in the programValidity and reliability of data collection is very important during research. Babbie (2007) defined validity as the extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the meaning of the concepts under consideration and reliability is a matter of whether a particular technique when applied repeatedly to the same object yield the same result at the same time. In study 2, in other to collect most reliable and valid data, interviewers generally conducted the telephone survey with several different staff each responding to their areas of expertise.In study 1,. Field were tested to ensure adaptability to local Vietnamese context. ELISA technique was used for HIV testing and univariate analysis was performed to test the associations of having overdosed in the past 12 months. Researchers must put into consideration the ethics and values of the participants. According to Sarantakos (2005), the researcher becomes aware of a lot of ethical consideration during the process of data collection. An important aspect of ethical consideration is â€Å"veracity, voluntary participation and confidentiality†.In study 1, participant were provided with written voluntary consent form which contains the detailed information on the purpose of the study and potential benefits and risk of participation which was read by a trained and experienced Vietnamese interviewers at the study site. In study 2, the interviewers described the purpose of the research to the participant through the telephone, gave a number of assurance concerning the voluntary nature the research and the confidentiality of responses.Some of the participant gave their consent and continued with the interview while some decline participation. It is important to take into consideration the limitation of the method used during data collection. In study 1, the use snowballing sampling is unlike ly that the sample will be representative of the population even though the interviewers claimed that recruitment of hidden population through peers has been successful in obtaining a broad sample. A better method would have been random selection.The second limitation of study I is that representativeness of the entire IDU population in the province can not be ascertained despite the fact that three fourths of the registered IDU were recruited from provincial level of government records of registered IDUs because there could be possibility of under-reporting and institutionalization of IDUs In study 2, the data reflected the provision of HCV services by drug treatment program from the person most knowledgeable about the medical services provided at the program, this will not give a rue data collection because the program managers may have over-reported the quality of services provided by the program. Clients assessing the programs should have been interviewed instead, these would ha ve supplied accurate information about the program and the data would have reflected the view of the clients In conclusion,

Example Query Letter for Writers

Example Query Letter for Writers Most writers will get to know the query process all too well. And a quick glance through Writers Digests successful query letters will show you that there are a few very simple dos and donts when it comes to writing a query letter that will get an agents or editors attention fast.A few things you should doDo keep it under five paragraphs (one page).Do use the agents/editors name after Dear.Do write it so the reader can hear your works voice.Do follow a typical formal letter format.Do include important details of the book, such as word count and genre.And a few things you shouldnt doDont forget a SASE (self-addressed stamped envelope).Dont use odd font/text color/paper color.Dont oversell yourself.Dont make it generic; show that publisher or editor why its a perfect fit for him/her.Example query letterDear Mr. McCarthy,You remember it, dont you? That rush of excitement in the air when it was almost summer break? The feeling of impending freedom, counting down too slowly on the calenda r, and moving at a snails pace closer to you? Josh Baer, a junior at Valleydale High School, was feeling exactly that when he made a quick decision that would change the course of his summer- and his life!Awaiting the end of another school year that was a complete drag, the Josh accepts a last-minute invitation to an end of the school year bash at Megans place. Since she was the most beautiful girl at school, and his hardcore crush at the moment, he decided to go. And thats when things got weird.First, he found a room he wasnt supposed to find. Then he found out a secret that would lead him and Megan on an adventure with a questionable motorcycle gang through back alleys and empty warehouses, all to find out that Megans family wasnt everything it seemed.Coming of Age is YA fiction that combines the melancholy love story of Twilight with the high-speed adventure Dan Brown is best known for. Coming of Age is my first novel and is just over 60,000 words.I would be delighted to send a s ample or full manuscript at your request. Thank you for reading, and I look forward to hearing from you.All the best,Shiloah Garret

Consumer Behaviour in UK and China Automobile Industry Dissertation - 1

Consumer Behaviour in UK and China Automobile Industry - Dissertation Example These five questions are very important as it covers all major areas for studying consumer behaviors. In order to cater to those five questions, this paper has presented and discussed important sections like literature review, primary research and secondary research. The literature review has presented an  important theoretical background to understand the mechanism of consumer behavior. The primary research has obtained important data for identifying the prevailing consumers’ behaviors and secondary research has provided the factual data to link with the primary data. The gathered primary data has disclosed major trends in consumer behavior in car markets of the UK and on the Chinese people. These primary data are also discussed and analyzed in the light of the given theoretical background and secondary data. The output of the primary data analyses has supported the consumer behavioral theories and secondary data. As per the discussions based on literature review, primary a nd secondary data, this paper is able to cater to the five pre-defined research questions. The consumer behavior in the  automobile industry of China and UK is influenced by a number of factors like culture, economic condition, brand, quality, price etc and these factors vary as per the national culture and system of the two countries. The successful automobile companies presented in both countries are able to differentiate and identify the multiple factors influencing the consumer buying behavior. The cultural paradigm of different markets like China and Britain reflect significant impacts on the purchasing behavior of cars and domestic vehicles. The main aim of the paper revolves around understanding the reasons or factors which bring about cultural changes and thereby affect the demand for cars in the two markets.  

What Specific Benefit Does Knowledge Management Software Add To A Essay

What Specific Benefit Does Knowledge Management Software Add To A Global Organization - Essay Example Technology may be central to companies adopting a global strategy. To discuss the benefits of using software in knowledge management tt should be mentioned that knowledge management means storing and sharing the wisdom and understanding accumulated in an organization about its processes, techniques and operations. It treats knowledge as a key resource, and software becomes a way of sharing this knowledge. Knowledge management software helps to connect people in global organization who operate in a distance, and has no opportunity to use printed matters or other sources. Knowledge management is as much if not more concerned with people and how they acquire, exchange and disseminate knowledge as it is about information technology. That is why it has become an important area for HR practitioners, who are in a strong position to exert influence in this aspect of people management. Software in KM can benefited in any process or practice of creating, acquiring, capturing, sharing and using knowledge, wherever it resides, to enhance learning and performance in organizations (Kucza, Komi-Sirvio,2001). MK software and the Internet world is growing fast and is becoming the integral part for many global organizations which create "portals to facilitate collaborative among workers involved in product development" (Moore, 2001). Internet rationalizes the expensive and cumbersome proposition of large-scale service. MK software serves to reduce at least the appearance of risk associated with time-space distanciation and the opacity of the expert system. In the global organisation managers need to implement a system that is much like a traditional library - it must contain a large cache of documents and include search engines that allow people to find and use the documents they need. In the personalization model, it's more important to have a system that allows people to find other people. In the light of this KM software is viewed as a means of communication and as a means of storing knowledge. Knowledge management is more about people than technology. A preoccupation with technology may mean that too little attention is paid to the processes (social, technological and organizational) through which knowledge combines and interacts in different ways. The key benefit is the interactions between people. This constitutes the social capital of an organization, i.e. the network of relationships constitute a valuable resource for the conduct of organizational affairs. Organizational networks can be particularly important in ensuring that knowledge is shared. What is also required is another aspect of organizational capital: trust. People will not be willing to share knowledge with those whom they do not trust, but KM software helps to reduce this risk to a minimum, and in some cases even encourage employees to be more active and participate in current affaires (Card, 1991). Another benefit of KM software is possibility to inhibit knowledge sharing in the culture of the company. The norm may be for people to keep knowledge to themselves as much as they can because 'knowledge is power'. An open culture will encourage people to share their ideas and knowledge. KM software helps to develop an open culture in which the values and norms emphasize the importance of sharing knowledge. On the other hand it promotes a climate of commitment and trust. As the most important KM software can help to

Post Confederation Canada Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Post Confederation Canada - Research Paper Example Although Canada was already an independent colony, British felt that there were internal political obstacles that she needed to solve. Consequently, the two conflicting parties, the Tories and the Clear Grits, came to unite in 18672. Nevertheless, this essay will describe Quasi-Federalism (and the subsequent types of federalisms) an aspect of Post Confederation Canada. To begin with, activities surrounding the Post Confederation Canada shaped Canadian history in many ways. One of the aspects of Post Confederation Canada that contributes to the shape of this country is the quasi federalism. Quasi federalism occurs when a state appears as if is divided into jurisdictions however is in fact a unitary state without any divided authority. Quasi federalism features involved contrasts between federalism and conservatism. For instance, immediately after confederation in Canada, the emerging partisan politics claimed that the strongest support for decentralization actually came from Ontario n ot Quebec or the Maritimes. In this instance, Canadian authority appeared as divided but in real sense, it was a pattern of rights between centralist’s supporters and conservatism, but whose view was same3. Quasi federalism in Post Confederation Canada produced another feature of partisan politics whereby the patterns of governance portrayed dominance in different levels of administration. In Post Confederation, features of political atmosphere dominance in Canada were prevalent. In this case, one political dominated the provincial level whereas opposition affirmed control at the federal level. Quasi federalism comprised of such features whereby, of the thirty years following Confederation in Canada, the Conservatives reigned in power for twenty-six years. A political scientist, Russell, argues that, in the case of contemporary politics Canada has experienced the same pattern of federal Conservative control even after the Mulroney Conservatives4. The major purpose of Russellà ¢â‚¬â„¢s point of this observation is to assert that provincial politics transcend significantly into federal politics. It is worthwhile to note that, quasi federalism in Post Confederation Canada was different from the American state governance. While American state governors faced restriction via series of strict checks and balances, it was ultimately different from quasi federalism state governance by which the main restrictive force found within the Canadian case was the continued rivalry found among regional interests5. However, even though quasi federalism led to economic transformation, however, dominated by the elites who did little to appeal to the wider public was constructive and contributed to a significant and essential period of nation building directly after the confederation. Cognitively, this economic growth in Post Confederation Canada helped shape the overall structure of the nation and the living standards of the fortunate. The evolution process of quasi federali sm in Post Confederation Canada is one of the most important features shaping the structure and functions of state governance. Throughout quasi federalism evolution, people could consider it hierarchical since its structural composition had central authority and regional subordinates. Instead, people considered quasi federalism as a system

The Advantages Of Being Physically Attractive Philosophy Essay

The Advantages Of Being Physically Attractive Philosophy Essay Nowadays attractive people rule the world. We see them on television, on the covers of magazines, they are everywhere. They dominate all the fields that include a certain degree of public exposure. What is beautiful is good. This is the stereotype that plays an active role in our lives. Physical attractiveness influences our relationships with other people. It influences social acceptance and the employment process. People consider that less attractive children are more likely to grow up with bad behavior, but if an attractive child grows up with such bad behavior, people perceive this event like an unusual one. On job interviews, attractive people seem to be more efficient. They are good communicators they speak faster and fluently; they enjoy social interactions and exchanges. These people show more confidence and develop more favorable images of them. It is a fact that attractive people tend to be more successful than the less attractive ones. Attractive individuals are more sociable and happier. They tend to be more socially skillful because the favorable expectations of attractive people lead to better social exchanges, more favorable self-images, and better social skills. 2.2. Head Positions Head shaking has its origins in bowing to appear superior. It can be a powerful persuasion tool; you can encourage someone to talk or to make him stop, only by nodding three to four times in certain intervals of time. The speed of nods determines the listeners patience or the lack of it. If the listener is interested in what the speaker is saying he will give a slow deliberate nod. Fast nodding tells us that the listener wants to interfere or he is not interested anymore. Head nodding can be contagious, if someone nods, you will return the nod, even if you dont agree with what he is saying. Head nodding is also an excellent tool to get someones cooperation and agreement; it is an unconscious outward reflection of our inner emotions so when you feel optimistic about something and you feel affirmative your head will start to nod as you speak. Positive emotions cause head nods and it goes the other way around, affirmative head nods can cause positive emotions. If you start to nod intentionally, you will experience those emotions. In different cultures head nodding signifies yes, yes you agree other persons point of view. This is not the case of Bulgaria where positive head nodding means no. In Japan, for example, head nodding doesnt necessarily mean agreement; it can signify yes, I hear you. In other countries, like India, the head movement differs; here people move their head from side to side to signal agreement. There are three basic head position. Head up In this position, the head remains still; the conversation can be slightly punctuated by small nods. Usually, this position takes a person who has neither positive nor negative attitude about what the interlocutor says. If someone lifts the head with the chin jutting forward, he signals arrogance and fearlessness. Anyone who adopts this position is intentionally exposing the throat to gain some height so they can look down their nose. The Head Tilt The head tilt displays the vulnerable necks; it makes a persons look smaller and less threatening. It is believed that this position has its origins in the baby resting its head on his parents shoulder or chest, its submissive meaning is understood by everyone, especially women. Many women use this position in order to get attention from man they fancy because a submissive woman is attractive to most men. It is recommended using head tilt along with head nods during presentation or while delivering a speech because you will appear nonthreatening and the listeners will begin to trust you. Head Down People who have judgmental and negative attitude tend to keep their head down. It shows disapproval or disappointment. Sometimes, conference speakers confront situations when the listeners adopt this position, to make them lift their heads they involve them in action, they invite them to participate into a conversation before their actual presentation. If the method is successfully the next head position of the audience will be the tilt head. 2.3 Eye contact The eyes are the windows of the soul. They are highly expressive region; their movement is allowing various expressions. We keep our eyes open, turn a blind eye to certain events, or we choose not to bat an eye. Our eyes show what we think about a person, how we feel toward him, if we are comfortable or not. Eye contact is one of the most primitive ways of communication, during social interaction all good communicators look at each other in the eye, without the gaze even if it is for several seconds, they dont feel like they are fully into the conversation. Georg Simmel described the phenomenon as a wholly new and unique union between two people and that it represents the most perfect reciprocity in the entire field of human relationship (Simmel). The eye gaze may have a variety of meanings, such as friendship, submission, hate or attraction. The sources of variation are: Point in the conversation: if a person is listening there is more eye contact than the situation where he is speaking. When people speak they tend to look up at the end of the speeches and phrases. Nature of the topic. Topics of personal matter usually avoid the eye contact. Catholic confessionals and psychiatric couches for example are built in such manner, that the person who talks wouldnt be inhibited by the eye contact. The contact between the priest or the therapist and the individual in both of these locations is reduced; the individual can feel, but not see the presence of the priest or the doctor so when he discuss shameful and embarrassing things those who are listening could not stare at them. Relations between a pair of people. When two people like each other there is more eye contact than usual. The pupils are dilating when you look at a person whom you like more. Besides attraction, the gaze could mean threat, when one is cutting off or averting his gaze this signal could mean appeasement. Cooperation. There is also more direct gaze when two people tend to cooperate rather than competing. In this case, an important role plays the quantity of eye contact; a high level of it usually means that the gazer is interested in the subject. However, combined with other expressions it also means threat. Personality. Depending on ones personality, he could look more or less. Extroverts look more often and for longer than their interlocutors and the introverts. There are also people that avoid the gaze; these are schizophrenic patients, depressed people and autistic children. Distance. It is a certainty that eye contact is reduced when proximity is greater, in busses or elevators, for example it ceases at all. Reducing eye gaze helps us reduce the level of discomfort produced by invading our intimate zone. 2.3.1 The Functions of Eye Contact The meanings of eye contact are various, and beside the hate, joy and domination signals that they could express there are several function that they have as well. These functions are: Information-Seeking. Our social behavior is an open book for others to read, it tells the world who we really are. We are the one that give information so it is important to us to receive a properly feedback. The speech could be a way, but sometimes if you look closely to the others face you can find a lot more than he says, especially if you look at his eyes. At the end of the speech he looks at you to see how the information was received. Signaling that the channel is open. When you communicate and maintain the eye contact the speaker will understand that all your attention is his, and he may proceed further with the conversation. On the other hand, a simple flicker of the eye toward a third person indicates that the channel is closed. Concealment and Exhibitionism. Some people look to get attention and to keep it. These people according to Laing suffer from lack of such feelings like self-regard and ego-identity, they need to be seen so they could be loved and confirmed as a person (Laing). The eye contact is the only they need. Establishment and Recognition of Social Relationship. Argyle explained this function through the example of an A and B person. The eye contact plays a central role in the establishment of their relationship. If there is eye contact between A and B it means that there is attraction. If A wants to dominate B: A will stare at B with the appropriate expression, if B accepts As dominance he will adopt a submissive expression and he will look away; If some people want to see and to be seen some of them dont want to have eye contact at all. They hide communication signals and disguise the gaze by wearing sunglasses. Glasses are also used by blind people they wear tinted glasses to avoid the embarrassment of not being able to look a person in the eye whenever it is necessary. Mirrored glasses stay between traffic policeman and the drivers, by avoiding the eye contact policemen can reduce the possibility of an argument; the nervous drivers can be put off a confrontation if they are not seeing the officers eye but, forced to see their own. 2.4 Facial Expressions The interest in human expression of emotion dates from more than a century ago when Charles Darwin published his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Darwin believed that humans emotional expressions are defined by our evolution; therefore he couldnà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢t understand the human emotions without understanding the emotional expressions of animals. Darwin returned to fundamentals, he built his theory of emotional expressions in animals, in infants and children, and in adults from different countries. Although everybody read his book, it hadnt much impact on the scientific community over years. Only recently the scientists agreed that Darwins ideas, his theoretical interpretations and forecasts are the premise of current knowledge in the field of humans facial expressions. Scientists relate facial expressions with emotions they represent. Many anthropologists like Margaret Mead believed that the cultures of the world control these emotions. Paul Ekman on the contrary proved that facial expressions have natural origins therefore, they are universal. Surprise Something unexpected triggers this emotion; it is the shortest one and it takes two or three seconds. It could last if the surprises continue. It is not a surprise when you have time to think if you are surprised or not, because this emotion feels like an explosion. A surprised individual will raise the eyebrows so that the skin below will be more visible than usual. He will have wrinkles on his forehead; wrinkles that everyone shows except young children. The individual will also have the mouth opened; his lips will be smooth and relaxed. His mouth may be partly open or widely open it depends on how intense was the surprise. The raised eyebrows, the relaxed open mouth can occur in combination with other expressions like neutral face, but it will no longer signify surprise, but doubt, fascination, or an astonishing moment. Anger Anger is the most dangerous emotion of all. When you are angry you can say things or worse do things that later you will regret. When you are angry you are not yourself, your blood pressure increases, the veins on your neck and forehead become more visible, your muscles tense and you may move slightly toward the offender. This emotion may be developed step by step, from a simple irritation, to rage or fury, it can be accumulated or it may occur suddenly. Angers appearance can be determined when there are significant changes on the face. The angry person has his inner corners of the eyebrows lowered and drawn together. His eyelids are tense and his eyes look like he stares. The mouth has two basic types: The lip-pressed-against-lip mouth: it occurs when someone is starting some form of violence or when a person is trying to control his verbal anger; he presses the lips to prevent saying something unpleasant. The open-mouthed anger happens when someone is expressing anger or when this person yells during a speech. 2.4.3 Fear Fear is the innate emotion induced by a certain threat or sense of danger. We learn how to avoid the possibility of harm by analyzing what occurs around us. However we canà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢t anticipate everything and even it can be prevented we still fear any events or ideas that seems dangerous. Fear is a sudden emotion just like surprise, you cant pause a moment to think if you are afraid or not, it occurs immediately something harms you and you are afraid. Unlike surprise fear is a terrible experience even a mild fear is unpleasant ant it is the most traumatic of all emotions. Another difference between fear and surprise consist of its duration. Fear if it is unexpected it can have short duration but it can also occur gradually, you can know very well the fear-inspiring event and still be afraid of it. During fear there are distinctive appearances in the three areas of the face. The eyebrows appear raised and straightened with the inner corners drawn together, there are also wrinkles but not on the entire forehead. When the brows are held in the fear position the meaning of the expression is either worry or controlled fear. Fear eyebrows are joined by fear eyes and fear mouth. Eyes during fear are tense, the upper eyelid is raised the lower eyelid is also tense. In both fear and surprise the upper eyelid is raised but these emotions differ in regard to the lower eyelid which in surprise is relaxed and in fear is tense and raised. In fear the mouth also may be opened the difference between surprise and fear are the lips in surprise they are relax, but in fear they are tense and also may be drawn back. 2.4.4 Disgust and Contempt Disgust is an emotion of aversion. There are many things that may cause this aversion, the taste of something that you dont like, the smell of it sometimes even the thought could cause disgust. Not only the tastes or the smell can bring someone disgust but also the actions and the appearance of another person. Some people feel disgust when looking a deformed or an ugly person. You may be disgusted by what a person does for example if that someone is torturing an animal. Even if the emotion of disgust is universal, the things that one person thinks disgusting are not universally. What in one culture is disgusting in another culture may seem attractive and the other way around. These kinds of things are not the exactly in the same culture or in the same family. A disgusted person has lowered eyebrows and raised cheeks. However, the important clues that show disgust happen in the nose and mouth area. The upper lip may be raised, and the nose has wrinkles. Disgust may range from a slight form of disgust to an extreme one. The difference between these forms is that in the slight type, the wrinkles on the nose and raised lip are less pronounced. A close form of disgust is the contempt facial expression. This emotion is triggered by other peoples actions not smells, food or touches. Contempts appearance consists of a closed mouth with corners a little bit raised, and lips pressing each other. 2.4.5 Happiness Happiness is a positive emotion that everyone wants to experience. We like when we are happy, it feels so good that we search it, and we try to build our lives around this emotion. Most of the people think that the signal of happiness is the smile. It is not quite true. Sometimes, behind a smile there is pain hiding or even fear. Smiling in these cases, you make the unpleasant situations more comfortable for you. Happiness intensity is determined by the position of the lip; this position is always accompanied by deepening the region between the lips and the nose also by more pronounced lines under the lower eyelid. The intensity of happiness varies from a simple smile to an abroad one from ear to ear. The extreme form of happiness is laughter with tears. 2.4.6 Sadness Sadness means suffering. People when are sad have a distinct way of showing it, they dont cry they dont yell they just suffer in silence. Anything can make a person sad but in the most of cases what triggers this feeling is the loss of somebody. Sadness appearance has distinctive clues in each area of the face. A sad person will lower his face; the inner corners his eyebrows are will be raised. The inner corner of the upper eyelid is drawn up, and the lower eyelid may appear raised. The corners of the lips are drawn down, or the lips appear to tremble. (Ekman and Friesen p121) All the emotions mentioned above can blend with each other creating more ways to express our feelings, to underline or punctuate something in a conversation. It is known that people learn to control their facial expressions and sometimes you can be misled. Gestures Hands arms and even legs can produce a variety of signals. These signals are used either to help you improve your interaction skills or to negotiate. As we grow up our signals become more subtle and less obvious and that is making them harder to read. There is a debate among the researchers wherever some gestures are genetic or they are learned. The conclusion they got is that gestures are learned and they are culturally determined. The open palm Hands have been an important tool in human evolution and it is believed that there are more connection between the brain and the hand than between the brain and any over part of the body. If you try to see if a person is honest or not, an important thing is to look at palm displays. The open palm was associated with truth and honesty throughout history. In ancient times open palms used to show that there are no weapons concealed and therefore there is no threat. Nowadays different kinds of oaths are taken in this way by placing the palm over the heart, in courts when somebody testifies the right palm is held up for the member of the court to see while in the left hand is the Bible. There are three main palm gestures: the submissive palm position, the palm is facing up and it is used as a non-threatening gesture if you ask something from a person he will not feel the pressure of the request like in a superior situation. You will gain authority if you turn the palm to face downwards, the person whom you addressed the request will feel it like an order. The third gesture and the most irritating is that in which the palm is closed into a fist except the pointed finger, with whom the speaker creates a negative effect on other people he beats them into submission. Rubbing the palms together This gesture is the way in which people communicate their positive expectations. Before the dice are threw the thrower rubs them between palms, it signals his positive expectation of wining. Also a positive expectation signals a waiter at the end of the evening when he is asking anything else, sir while rubbing his palms, this usually is the non-verbal sign of a tip. However when a person rubs his palms while he is expecting the bus in freezing winter it means that his hand are cold not that he is expecting the bus. It is all about the context in which these gestures are made. Hands clenched together. This gesture seems to be a confidence one because people are smiling and sound happy when using it. The research showed however that behind that smile the person is holding back a negative attitude and therefore it is a gesture of frustration. The person may hold his hands clenched in three main positions: hand clenched in front of the face, resting on the desk or on the lap when seated. Steepling hands All gestures come in groups that are called clusters. This gesture represents an exception. It can be used in isolation from other gestures by people who use minimal or restricted body language. When it used it signals confident attitude. The gesture has two versions: the raised steeple used when the steepler is doing the talking and the lowered steeple when he is listening. The Mouth Guard This is a gesture learned from childhood and it is as obvious as it was then. The hand covers the entire mouth and the thumb is presses the cheek. What is happening is that the brain automatically tries to block deceitful words. As we grow up we try to disguise it by giving a fake cough or to minimize this gesture, instead of hand slapping over the mouth the finger rub around it. Folded Arms Folded arm gesture stands for a barrier against threatening situations. When a person has a nervous, negative or defensive attitude, he will fold his arms firmly on his chest, a strong signal that he feels threatened. (Pease) The researchers have found that the person who folds his arms has not only a negative attitude toward the speaker but he also is paying less attention to what is being sad. Many people said that they fold their arms because it is cozy. Any gesture will feel comfortable when you have the corresponding attitude; that is if you have a negative, defensive or nervous attitude, the folded arms position will feel good. (Pease) Standard arm-cross gesture This is a gesture that signifies the same universally negative attitude that people have in public events, meetings where they are surrounded by strangers; they have their both arms folded across the chest, it feels like an attempt to block an unfavorable situation. Beside the negative attitude this gesture also means that the person who folds his arms may disagree with what the speaker says. To bring this person into a more open position you have to make him unfold his arms and reach forward. Sometimes this gesture comes in cluster with clenched fists, clenched teeth, it indicates a hostile attitude and it makes possible a verbal or even a physical attack. To make the arm barrier less obvious people disguise their arm-cross gestures. These people dont want for other to know their insecurity or nervousness so their instead of folding their arms or grasping the other arm they just touch some of their personal objects like; handbags, bracelets watches everything near the arm. The standard leg-cross position Arms are not the only body part that can be used to form a barrier between you and the world. In most of European countries in Australian and New Zeeland cultures the right leg is neatly crossed over the left one. It is a gesture that shouldnt be read out of context because people use it when they sit for a long time in uncomfortable chairs or when it is freezing outside. Leg-cross positions may indicate that a defensive attitude exists but not so negative and obvious like arm-crossed gesture. Used together these gestures indicate that the person is not paying attention that he is withdrawn from the conversation. The same meaning of negative attitude has the ankle lock gesture. This gesture is different in male and female version. In male version it appears together with clenched fists placed on the knees or with hands grasping the chairs arms. In womens case the knees are held together, the hands are resting side by side or one on the top of the other on the upper legs. When individuals start to feel comfortable in a certain group they start to open up through a set o movements. This set has five stages: Stage: the arms and legs are crossed in the defensive position. Stage: the feet are placed in a neutral position. Stage: the arm that is folded on top comes out and the palm is flashed during the conversation. Stage: arms unfold and they can be placed either in pockets or on the hips. Stage: the person is leaning forward to the speaker whom he finds interesting and not a stranger anymore. It is important to know that all kind of gestures or facial examples should be considered in the context that they occur, because it is really easy to misread a signal. If for example a man has a soft handshake you most likely will be tented to accuse him of having a weak character, not taking into consideration that he may be a surgeon or a musician and he has to be delicate with his hands in order to protect them.

Colombian Democracy Essay -- Politics Political Science

Colombian Democracy There is a practical problem to capturing a cogent understanding of Colombia in a single snapshot. There are two realities of Colombia scholars use to frame analysis of the birthplace of Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s magical realism: â€Å"armed conflict† and â€Å"political democracy.† These phenomena are a defining feature of modern Colombia. They have coexisted since 1958 when the National Front political pact ended intra-elite conflict in La Violencia but failed to guarantee a stable social order. In a sense, Colombian society was never successfully â€Å"pacified† in the way its neighboring nations were. The question of whether and how these two realities will be linked in the future is what stimulates my interest in this Andean nation. To submit an intelligible diagnosis and prospective commentary about Colombian democracy, it is worthwhile to review how scholarship treats the trajectory of this unique arrangement. Divorced research approaches to studying Colombia For a number of reasons, under the current administration of President Alvaro Uribe the tradition of utilizing an integrative approach to understanding the tortuous epic of Colombian democracy and violence is diminishing in credibility. In general, divorcing the realities of the Western hemisphere’s second oldest â€Å"democracy† (defined as the electoral party politics practiced in Bogotà ¡ and other urban centers) and the significant violent resistance and repression which characterize vast rural areas from one another by politicians is a means to establishing a binary of terrorism and democracy. The corollary is often to promulgate attractive panacea-like policy prescriptions. In the academy, scholars too can fall victim to this oversimplification an... ...d de Chile, Instituto de Ciencia Politica, Vol. 42, Fall 2004, 1-25. Pizarro, Eduardo, Una democracia asediadaa, Bogotà ¡: Grupo Editorial Norma, 2004. Posada-Carbà ³, Eduardo, ed., The Politcs of Reforming the State, London: Institute for Latin America Studies, University of London, 1998. Richani, Nazih, Systems of Violence The Political Economy of War and Peace in Colombia, Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002. Vargas, Ricardo, â€Å"State, Esprit Mafioso, and Armed Conflict in Colombia,† in Burt, Jo-Marie and Mauricci, Philip, eds., Politics in the Andes: Identity, Conflict, Reform, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004. Whitehead, Laurence, â€Å"Reforms: Colombia and Mexico,† in Garreton, Manuel A and Newman, Edward, eds., Democracy in Latin America: Reconstructing Political Society, New York: United Nations University Press, 2002.

Childhood Case Study Essay

When I was a child the world seemed to be a place of joy and happiness to me. There was nothing worth worrying about. Whenever I cried somebody picked me up. When I did not like to sit alone, I was always in somebody’s army. My father was one of my heroes since young. I idolize him as I grow up and to everything like him. I often ask my father to tell me about his childhood experience and he loves telling funny stories or describing unusual situations. When he talks to me about those years, I feel like I see the past through his eyes. I think he was really happy as a child. Normally in my mind, I would compare my father’s childhood and mine. My father and I had very different childhood in terms of social problem, family background, technology and education. Firstly, social problem within my father’s and my own childhood in terms of freedom. As a child, my dad will be playing out the whole day; running, laughing and not worrying. My dad lived in a village where the children from the whole village were a big company. They would all play together without fighting and arguing all the time. Heck, my grandparents didn’t have to worry about my dad that much. They are used to let their children play a lot of hours with freedom without being nervous or stressed about it. They knew their children were safe. I, on the other hand, had a must lesser freedom compared to my father. Back then, I don’t get to go out and play with the other children due to safety reasons. My parents were very afraid of this worlds’ dangers. In fact, there weren’t many children to play with in streets compared to the â€Å"good old days†. I get to go the playground to play once awhile but there were so few to play with. Next, our family background was also very different in terms of social status and financial status. My dad was born a year later after my country’s independence, so technically he was the 1st generation of official Malaysian in Malaysia. My country is also a multiracial country so long story short, my dad had social status issues with other races during his childhood. When he was 10, my dad experienced things that no child should which was the May 13th Incident. The May 13th incident refers to the Sino-Malay sectarian violence in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in which many Malaysian-Chinese died in  1969. I can only imagine how terrifying it was for my dad to live through that incident as a child. I, however, lived peacefully as a Malaysian-Chinese without such incident. During my generation, my social status has already develop stability, my race was recognize as the 3 main races in Malaysia. I also have a good financial support as a child compared to my father. Back then my grandfather was an immigrant from China, owning a small business to raise his family. My father did not receive much financial as a child. During elementary school, my father had to help out with my grandfather’s business. I’m consider very fortunate as my father worked hard to ensure that my childhood did not have to be like his. Then, the advancement of science and technology effect both my dad’s childhood and my own in terms of entertainment. Back then the time where video games were like rocket science and cellphones where as big as bricks. Entertainment in technology wasn’t really available at my dad’s childhood thus explaining the big company of children playing outside all the time, but it didn’t mean it didn’t exist in that time. Back then, my dad really enjoyed listening to the radio. The radio was practically the main source of entertainment in terms of technology; it had music, podcast, news and etc. My dad was considered lucky to even have a colored television in his own home and there was not much to watch as well. I, in my childhood days, had the privilege of watching Disney channel on my decoder with my cartoons. In addition, technology was my source of entertainment with my game consoles and televisions. Which also the cause of me not going out that much as a child. Technology allow my childhood to not need the company of the other, to play with. Communication was also much better thanks to technology. During elementary, affordable cellphones were available where my dad can contact me at any time. The same couldn’t be said for my dad back then, as owning cellphone was considered a luxury. Lastly, people say education is key to every childhood, but in that sense both my father and I had very different education environment and background in our childhood. My dad, back then, lived where education is very scarce. They weren’t many schools near where my dad lived. My grandmother had to cycle my dad to his school to drop off and pick up daily. If that isn’t bad  enough, my father had to have extra classes at the Chinese temple nearby just to learn Mandarin. During my time, my country has already development an effective education system to follow. Many schools were also available during that time. Mandarin is actually implemented into the educational system as a subject taught in public schools. I’m glad that I’m fortunate enough to have these facilities in my grasp in my childhood. Childhood is free from cares. There are no duties and responsibilities on the shoulders of a child. A child eats drinks, sleeps and plays. When he eats a piece of bread, he does not think from where it comes. His father alone knows that. Even when someone dies in the family, a child is not touched. As child lives in a bliss of ignorance and innocence. Despite the differences in our childhood, my dad and I both enjoyed part of our childhood and we will cherish these moments for life.

Jimmy Carter essays

Jimmy Carter essays Jimmy Carter became the thirty-ninth President of the United States of America on January 20, 1977. During his Presidency, he fulfilled campaign promises to develop a national energy program, protect the nations natural resources and aid education. The Egypt-Israeli Treaty of Peace and the Panama Canal Treaty gained the president worldwide recognition. Out of all the parts of Carters Foreign Policy, the two parts I found most interesting was human rights, and the strengthened ties with China. Out of the Carter administrations foreign policy, human rights were the foundation. In Carters Inaugural Address on January 20, 1977 he said, Our commitment to human rights must be absolute...the powerful must not persecute the weak, and human dignity must be enhanced...The world itself is now dominated by a new spirit. People...are craving, and now demanding their place in the sun- not just for the benefit of their own physical condition, but for basic human rights...Because we are now free, we can never be indifferent to the fate of freedom elsewhere. No other issue was so close to Jimmy Carter than human rights. The President was committed at home and abroad to human rights and this gave the people trust and courage. He accomplished his goal by public verbal protest, private diplomatic persuasion, and military and economic consensus. One example of how the President was committed at home is when he addressed a congregation of civil rights leaders at Ebenezer Baptist Church here in Atlanta. Even the Presidents wife, Roselyn Carter, was involved in human rights. In November 1979, Roselyn Carter flew to Thailand to visit relief centers caring for refugees of the Vietnam-Cambodian War. Upon her return to the Untied States, the first lady spoke about her experiences on nation-wide television and her efforts brought aid to thousands. Even in Carters Farwell A ...

Professional Development

Professional Development leadership in many nations. It is important to learn and understand complex culture for one to be a good leader. I built a habit of learning the Indonesian culture which is very important in my professional development. Many great leaders adopted global cultures to be successful in their regions. The interaction of folk music and Indonesian dance is a reflection of roots of diverse cultures of the world. Each good leader must embrace and develop respect for culture since people do value them therefore respect for culture is respect for people. It is an interactive tool in leadership. If a leader ignores culture he/she ignores the people he/she leads This relies completely on the emphasis people place on the culture. Culture is an in-born trait among people. Professional growth in culture is a wide field thus people find it challenging in the selection of culture to use in their leadership studies. Leadership skills are not universal. The Indonesian culture has enhanced my interpersonal skills hence I can influence people positively with no conflict.

Management accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 5

Management accounting - Essay Example It includes a proper comparison of the roles that are performed by management accounting with those that are performed by financial accounting. An appropriate definition of ‘management accounting’ is provided by Institute of Management Accountants. According to this institute, management accounting is the process through which financial information is identified, measured, accumulated, analyzed, prepared, interpreted and communicated to the management who then use these information for the purpose of planning, evaluating and controlling the operations of the firm (Siegel and Shim, Accounting handbook). Management accounting helps in preparing financial reports for various non-management groups like tax authorities and regulatory agencies. In simple words management accounting is such an accounting system that helps an organization and its management to plan, control and make effective decisions. Financial accounting, on the other side, is all about maintenance of record, classification and summarization of financial transactions. American Institute of Certified Public Accountants has clearly defined the term ‘financial accounting’. As per this definition, financial accounting is referred to the art of recording, categorizing as well as summarizing the events and transactions that includes at least one financial character. Three of the basic functions of financial accounting are recording, categorizing and summarizing (Kesavan et al. Engineering Economics and Financial Accounting). According to Vijayakumar, financial accounting and management accounting are the two important branches of accounting and as a consequence they are interrelated. He also opined that management accounting, to a great extent, is the rearrangement of data that arise out of the practice of financial accounting. However, there are several points or aspects where significant differences can be found between these two branches of accounting. Each of these

Delaware Water Gap Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Delaware Water Gap - Essay Example The deepest point of the river is about 55 feet (Hickman, 2004). The river is about a mile wide separating New Jersey from Pennsylvania. There are various theories that explain the development of the Delaware Water Gap.   Currently, it is said to have developed through a series of processes which included the continental shift, mountain building, erosion and capturing of streams and rivers. It is believed that over 450 million years ago, there was a continental shift that led to the collision of Africa and North America (Hickman, 2004). The impact caused by this collision caused the earth crust to rise leading to the formation of mountains along the collision lines. The Appalachian ranges, as well as the Kittantinny Mountains, were formed during this collision. The rivers and streams that flowed along these mountains carried pebbles and sand to the West. The sand and pebbles were deposited in layers. These layers became compacted and erosion resistant forming a conglomerate rock kn own as the Shawangunk Formation. The Shawanguk Formation is a gray quartzite that is highly resistant to water erosion. Over millions of years, different types of rocks were laid on top of the Shawanguk formation. About 300 million years ago, during the mountain building era, pressure built that forced the compacted layers of rock to fold and crumple (Hickman, 2004). The geological pressures during the mountain building era shattered the layers of rock. The shattered layers were eroded with time at different rates.